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Hong Kong
Government and politics
Hong Kong is a special administrative region of China, with executive, legislative, and judicial powers devolved from the national government.[85] The Sino-British Joint Declaration provided for economic and administrative continuity through the transfer of sovereignty,[72] resulting in an executive-led governing system largely inherited from the territory's history as a British colony.[86] Under these terms and the "one country, two systems" principle, the Basic Law of Hong Kong is the regional constitution.[87]
The regional government is composed of three branches:
- Executive: The Chief Executive is responsible for enforcing regional law,[86] can force reconsideration of legislation,[88] and appoints Executive Council members and principal officials.[89] Acting with the Executive Council, the Chief Executive-in-Council can propose new bills, issue subordinate legislation, and has authority to dissolve the legislature.[90]
- Legislature: The unicameral Legislative Council enacts regional law, approves budgets, and has the power to impeach a sitting Chief Executive.[91]
- Judiciary: The Court of Final Appeal and lower courts, whose judges are appointed by the Chief Executive on the advice of a recommendation commission,[92] interpret laws and overturn those inconsistent with the Basic Law.[93]
The Chief Executive is the head of government, and serves for a maximum of two five-year terms. The State Council (led by the Premier of China) appoints the Chief Executive after nomination by the Election Committee, which is composed of 1,200 business, community, and government leaders.[94][95][96]
The Legislative Council has 70 members, each serving a four-year term:[97] 35 directly elected from geographical constituencies and 35 representing functional constituencies (FC). Thirty FC councilors are selected from limited electorates representing sectors of the economy or special-interest groups,[98] and the remaining five members are nominated from sitting District Council members and selected in region-wide double direct elections.[99] All popularly elected members are chosen with proportional representation. The 30 limited electorate functional constituencies fill their seats using first-past-the-post, or instant-runoff, voting.[98]
Twenty-two political parties had representatives elected to the Legislative Council in the 2016 election.[100] These parties have aligned themselves into three ideological groups: the pro-Beijing camp (the current government), the pro-democracy camp, and localist groups.[101] The Communist Party does not have an official political presence in Hong Kong, and its members do not run in local elections.[102] Hong Kong is represented in the National People's Congress by 36 deputies chosen through an electoral college, and 203 delegates in the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference appointed by the central government.[8]
Chinese national law does not generally apply in the region, and Hong Kong is treated as a separate jurisdiction.[93] Its judicial system is based on common law, continuing the legal tradition established during British rule.[103] Local courts may refer to precedents set in English law and overseas jurisprudence.[104] Interpretative and amending power over the Basic Law and jurisdiction over acts of state lie with the central authority, however, making regional courts ultimately subordinate to the mainland's socialist civil law system.[105] Decisions made by the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress can also override territorial judicial processes.[106]
The territory's jurisdictional independence is most apparent in its immigration and taxation policies. The Immigration Department issues passports for permanent residents which differ from those of the mainland or Macau,[107] and the region maintains a regulated border with the rest of the country. All travellers between Hong Kong and China and Macau must pass border controls, regardless of nationality.[108] Chinese citizens resident in mainland China do not have the right of abode in Hong Kong, and are subject to immigration controls.[109] Public finances are handled separately from the national government, and taxes levied in Hong Kong do not fund the central authority.[110][111]
The Hong Kong Garrison is responsible for the region's defence.[112] Although the Chairman of the Central Military Commission is supreme commander of the armed forces,[113] the regional government may request assistance from the garrison.[114] Hong Kong residents are not required to perform military service and current law also no provision for local enlistment, so its defence is composed entirely of non-Hongkongers.[115]
The central government and the Ministry of Foreign Affairs handle diplomatic matters, but Hong Kong retains the ability to maintain separate economic and cultural relations with foreign nations.[116] The territory actively participates in the World Trade Organization, the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation forum, the International Olympic Committee, and many United Nations agencies.[117][118][119] The regional government maintains trade offices in Greater China and other nations.[120]
Political reforms and sociopolitical issues
According to Basic Law Articles 45 and 68, the goal is universal suffrage for the election of the Chief Executive and all members of the Legislative Council.[123]Although the legislature is partially elected, the executive is not.[124] The government has been petitioned to introduce direct election of the Chief Executive and all Legislative Council members.[125] These efforts have been partially successful; the Election Committee no longer selects a portion of the Legislative Council.[126]
Ethnic minorities (except those of European ancestry) have marginal representation in government, and often experience discrimination in housing, education, and employment.[127][128] Employment vacancies and public-service appointments frequently have language requirements which minority job seekers do not meet, and language-education resources remain inadequate for Chinese learners.[129][130]Foreign domestic helpers, predominantly women from the Philippines and Indonesia, have little protection under territorial law. Although they live and work in Hong Kong, these workers are not treated as ordinary residents and are ineligible for the right of abode.[131]
The Joint Declaration guarantees the Basic Law for 50 years after the transfer of sovereignty.[72] It does not specify how Hong Kong will be governed after 2047, and the central government's role in determining the territory's future system of government is the subject of political debate and speculation. Hong Kong's political and judicial systems may be reintegrated with China's at that time, or the territory may continue to be administered separately.[132][133]
Geography
Hong Kong is on China's southern coast, 60 km (37 mi) east of Macau, on the east side of the mouth of the Pearl River estuary. It is surrounded by the South China Seaon all sides except the north, which neighbours the Guangdong city of Shenzhenalong the Sham Chun River. The territory's 2,755 km2 (1,064 sq mi) area consists of Hong Kong Island, the Kowloon Peninsula, the New Territories, Lantau Island, and over 200 other islands. Of the total area, 1,073 km2 (414 sq mi) is land and 35 km2(14 sq mi) is water.[9] The territory's highest point is Tai Mo Shan, 957 metres (3,140 ft) above sea level.[134] Urban development is concentrated on the Kowloon Peninsula, Hong Kong Island, and in new towns throughout the New Territories.[135]Much of this is built on reclaimed land, due to the lack of developable flat land; 70 km2(27 sq mi) (six per cent of the total land or about 25 per cent of developed space in the territory) is reclaimed from the sea.[136]
Undeveloped terrain is hilly to mountainous, with very little flat land, and consists mostly of grassland, woodland, shrubland, or farmland.[137][138] About 40 per cent of the remaining land area are country parks and nature reserves.[139] The territory has a diverse ecosystem; over 3,000 species of vascular plants occur in the region (300 of which are native to Hong Kong), and thousands of insect, avian, and marine species.[140][141]
Climate
Hong Kong has a humid subtropical climate (Köppen Cwa), characteristic of southern China. Summer is hot and humid, with occasional showers and thunderstorms and warm air from the southwest. Typhoons occur most often then, sometimes resulting in floods or landslides. Winters are mild and usually sunny at the beginning, becoming cloudy towards February; an occasional cold front brings strong, cooling winds from the north. The most temperate seasons are spring (which can be changeable) and autumn, which is generally sunny and dry.[142] Snowfall is extremely rare, and usually occurs at high elevations. Hong Kong averages 1,709 hours of sunshine per year;[143] the highest and lowest recorded temperatures at the Hong Kong Observatory are 36.6 °C (97.9 °F) on 22 August 2017 and 0.0 °C (32.0 °F) on 18 January 1893.[144] The highest and lowest recorded temperatures in all of Hong Kong are 39.0 °C (102 °F) at Wetland Park on 22 August 2017,[145] and −6.0 °C (21.2 °F) at Tai Mo Shan on 24 January 2016.
| showClimate data for Hong Kong (Hong Kong Observatory), normals 1981–2010, extremes 1884–1939 and 1947–present |
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Architecture
Hong Kong has the world's largest number of skyscrapers, with 317 towers taller than 150 metres (490 ft),[27] and the third-largest number of high-rise buildings in the world.[148] The lack of available space restricted development to high-density residential tenements and commercial complexes packed closely together on buildable land.[149] Single-family detached homes are extremely rare, and generally only found in outlying areas.[150]
The International Commerce Centre and Two International Finance Centre are the tallest buildings in Hong Kong and among the tallest in the Asia-Pacific region.[151]Other distinctive buildings lining the Hong Kong Island skyline include the HSBC Main Building, the anemometer-topped triangular Central Plaza, the circular Hopewell Centre, and the sharp-edged Bank of China Tower.[152][153]
Demand for new construction has contributed to frequent demolition of older buildings, freeing space for modern high-rises.[154] However, many examples of European and Lingnan architecture are still found throughout the territory. Older government buildings are examples of colonial architecture. The 1846 Flagstaff House, the former residence of the commanding British military officer, is the oldest Western-style building in Hong Kong.[155] Some (including the Court of Final Appeal Building and the Hong Kong Observatory) retain their original function, and others have been adapted and reused; the Former Marine Police Headquarters was redeveloped into a commercial and retail complex,[156] and Béthanie (built in 1875 as a sanatorium) houses the Hong Kong Academy for Performing Arts.[157] The Tin Hau Temple, dedicated to the sea goddess Mazu (originally built in 1012 and rebuilt in 1266), is the territory's oldest existing structure.[158] The Ping Shan Heritage Trail has architectural examples of several imperial Chinese dynasties, including the Tsui Sing Lau Pagoda (Hong Kong's only remaining pagoda).[159]
Tong lau, mixed-use tenement buildings constructed during the colonial era, blended southern Chinese architectural styles with European influences. These were especially prolific during the immediate post-war period, when many were rapidly built to house large numbers of Chinese migrants.[160] Examples include Lui Seng Chun, the Blue House in Wan Chai, and the Shanghai Street shophouses in Mong Kok. Mass-produced public-housing estates, built since the 1960s, are mainly constructed in modernist style.[161]
Demographics
The Census and Statistics Department estimated Hong Kong's population at 7,448,900 in mid-2018.[10] The overwhelming majority (92 per cent) is Han Chinese,[7]most of whom are Taishanese, Teochew, Hakka, and a number of other Cantonese peoples.[162][163][164] The remaining eight per cent are non-ethnic Chinese minorities, primarily Filipinos, Indonesians, and South Asians.[7][165] About half the population have some form of British nationality, a legacy of colonial rule; 3.4 million residents have British National (Overseas) status, and 260,000 British citizens live in the territory.[166] The vast majority also hold Chinese nationality, automatically granted to all ethnic Chinese residents at the transfer of sovereignty.[167] However, Chinese nationality is not a requirement for permanent residency, and citizens of any country can acquire the right of abode.[15]
The predominant language is Cantonese, a variety of Chinese originating in Guangdong. It is spoken by 94.6 per cent of the population, 88.9 per cent as a first language and 5.7 per cent as a second language.[4] Slightly over half the population (53.2 per cent) speaks English, the other official language;[3] 4.3 per cent are native speakers, and 48.9 per cent speak English as a second language.[4] Code-switching, mixing English and Cantonese in informal conversation, is common among the bilingual population.[168] Post-handover governments have promoted Mandarin, which is currently about as prevalent as English; 48.6 per cent of the population speaks Mandarin, with 1.9 per cent native speakers and 46.7 per cent speaking it as a second language.[4] Traditional Chinese characters are used in writing, rather than the simplified characters used on the mainland.[169]
Among the religious population, the traditional "three teachings" of China (Buddhism, Confucianism, and Taoism) have the most adherents (20 per cent) and are followed by Christianity (12 per cent) and Islam (four per cent).[170] Followers of other religions, including Sikhism, Hinduism, Judaism, and the Bahá'í Faith, generally originate from regions where their religion predominates.[170]
Life expectancy in Hong Kong was 81.7 years for males and 87.7 years for females in 2017,[10] the sixth-highest in the world.[28] Cancer, pneumonia, heart disease, cerebrovascular disease, and accidents are the territory's five leading causes of death.[171] The universal public system is funded by general-tax revenue, and treatment is highly subsidised; on average, 95 per cent of healthcare costs are covered by the government.[172]
Income inequality has risen since the transfer of sovereignty, as the region's ageing population has gradually added to the number of nonworking people.[173] Although median household income has steadily increased during the past decade, the wage gap remains high;[174] the 90th percentile of earners receive 41 per cent of all income.[174] The city has the most billionaires per capita, with one billionaire per 109,657 people.[175] Despite government efforts to reduce the growing disparity,[176] median income for the top 10 per cent of earners is 44 times that of the bottom 10 per cent.[177][178]
Economy
Hong Kong has a capitalist mixed service economy, characterised by low taxation, minimal government market intervention, and an established international financial market.[179] It is the world's 35th-largest economy, with a nominal GDP of approximately HK$2.82 trillion (US$360 billion).[12] Although Hong Kong's economy has ranked at the top of the Heritage Foundation's economic freedom index since 1995,[180][181] the territory has a relatively high level of income disparity.[13] The Hong Kong Stock Exchange is the seventh-largest in the world, with a market capitalisation of HK$30.4 trillion (US$3.87 trillion) as of December 2018.[182]
Hong Kong is the seventh-largest trading entity in exports and imports, trading more goods in value than its gross domestic product.[23][24] Over half of its cargo throughput consists of transshipments (goods travelling through Hong Kong). Products from mainland China account for about 40 per cent of that traffic.[183] The city's location allowed it to establish a transportation and logistics infrastructure which includes the world's seventh-busiest container port[184] and the busiest airport for international cargo.[185] The territory's largest export markets are mainland China and the United States.[9]
It has little arable land and few natural resources, importing most of its food and raw materials. Imports account for more than 90 per cent of Hong Kong's food supply, including nearly all its meat and rice.[186] Agricultural activity is 0.1% of GDP, and consists of growing premium food and flower varieties.[187]
Although the territory had one of Asia's largest manufacturing economies during the latter half of the colonial era, Hong Kong's economy is now dominated by the service sector. The sector generates 92.7 per cent of economic output, with the public sector accounting for about 10 per cent.[188] Between 1961 and 1997, Hong Kong's gross domestic product multiplied by a factor of 180 and while per capita GDP increased by a factor of 87.[189][190] The territory's GDP relative to mainland China's peaked at 27 per cent in 1993; it fell to less than three per cent in 2017, as the mainland developed and liberalised its economy.[191]
Economic and infrastructure integration with China has increased significantly since the 1978 start of market liberalisation on the mainland. Since resumption of cross-boundary train service in 1979, many rail and road links have been improved and constructed (facilitating trade between regions).[192][193] The Closer Partnership Economic Arrangement formalised a policy of free trade between the two areas, with each jurisdiction pledging to remove remaining obstacles to trade and cross-boundary investment.[194] A similar economic partnership with Macau details the liberalisation of trade between the special administrative regions.[195] Chinese companies have expanded their economic presence in the territory since the transfer of sovereignty. Mainland firms represent over half of the Hang Seng Index value, up from five per cent in 1997.[196][197]
As the mainland liberalised its economy, Hong Kong's shipping industry faced intense competition from other Chinese ports. 50 per cent of China's trade goods were routed through Hong Kong in 1997, dropping to about 13 per cent by 2015.[198] The territory's minimal taxation, common law system, and civil service attract overseas corporations wishing to establish a presence in Asia.[198] The city has the second-highest number of corporate headquarters in the Asia-Pacific region.[199] Hong Kong is a gateway for foreign direct investment in China, giving investors open access to mainland Chinese markets through direct links with the Shanghai and Shenzhen stock exchanges. The territory was the first market outside mainland China for renminbi-denominated bonds, and is one of the largest hubs for offshore renminbi trading.[200]
The government has had a passive role in the economy. Colonial governments had little industrial policy, and implemented almost no trade controls. Under the doctrine of "positive non-interventionism", post-war administrations deliberately avoided the direct allocation of resources; active intervention was considered detrimental to economic growth.[201] While the economy transitioned to a service basis during the 1980s,[201] late colonial governments introduced interventionist policies. Post-handover administrations continued and expanded these programmes, including export-credit guarantees, a compulsory pension scheme, a minimum wage, anti-discrimination laws, and a state mortgage backer.[202]
Tourism is a major part of the economy, accounting for five per cent of GDP.[156] In 2016, 26.6 million visitors contributed HK$258 billion (US$32.9 billion) to the territory, making Hong Kong the 14th-most popular destination for international tourists. It is the most popular city for tourists, receiving over 70 per cent more visitors than its closest competitor (Macau).[203] The city is ranked as one of the most expensive cities for expatriates.[204][205]
Infrastructure
Transport
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Hong Kong has a highly developed, sophisticated transport network. Over 90 per cent of daily trips are made on public transport, the highest percentage in the world.[29]The Octopus card, a contactless smart payment card, is widely accepted on railways, buses and ferries, and can be used for payment in most retail stores.[206]
The Mass Transit Railway (MTR) is an extensive passenger rail network, connecting 93 metro stations throughout the territory.[207] With a daily ridership of over five million, the system serves 41 per cent of all public transit passengers in the city[208]and has an on-time rate of 99.9 per cent.[209] Cross-boundary train service to Shenzhen is offered by the East Rail line, and longer-distance inter-city trains to Guangzhou, Shanghai, and Beijing are operated from Hung Hom Station.[210]Connecting service to the national high-speed rail system is provided at Hong Kong West Kowloon railway station.[211]
Although public transport systems handle most passenger traffic, there are over 500,000 private vehicles registered in Hong Kong.[212] Automobiles drive on the left (unlike in mainland China), due to historical influence of the British Empire.[213] Vehicle traffic is extremely congested in urban areas, exacerbated by limited space to expand roads and an increasing number of vehicles.[214] More than 18,000 taxicabs, easily identifiable by their bright colour, are licensed to carry riders in the territory.[215] Bus services operate more than 700 routes across the territory,[208] with smaller public light buses (also known as minibuses) serving areas standard buses do not reach as frequently or directly.[216] Highways, organised with the Hong Kong Strategic Route and Exit Number System, connect all major areas of the territory.[217] The Hong Kong–Zhuhai–Macau Bridgeprovides a direct route to the western side of the Pearl River estuary.[193]
Hong Kong International Airport is the territory's primary airport. Over 100 airlines operate flights from the airport, including locally based Cathay Pacific (flag carrier), Hong Kong Airlines, regional carrier Cathay Dragon, and cargo airline Air Hong Kong.[218] It is the eighth-busiest airport by passenger traffic,[219] and handles the most air-cargo traffic in the world.[220] Most private recreational aviation traffic flies through Shek Kong Airfield, under the supervision of the Hong Kong Aviation Club.[221]
The Star Ferry operates two lines across Victoria Harbour for its 53,000 daily passengers.[222] Ferries also serve outlying islands inaccessible by other means. Smaller kai-to boats serve the most remote coastal settlements.[223] Ferry travel to Macau and mainland China is also available.[224] Junks, once common in Hong Kong waters, are no longer widely available and are used privately and for tourism.[225]
The Peak Tram, Hong Kong's first public transport system, has provided funicular rail transport between Central and Victoria Peak since 1888.[226] The Central and Western District has an extensive system of escalators and moving pavements, including the Mid-Levels escalator (the world's longest outdoor covered escalator system).[227] Hong Kong Tramways covers a portion of Hong Kong Island. The MTR operates its Light Rail system, serving the northwestern New Territories.[207]
Culture
Hong Kong is characterised as a hybrid of East and West. Traditional Chinese values emphasising family and education blend with Western ideals, including economic liberty and the rule of law.[239] Although the vast majority of the population is ethnically Chinese, Hong Kong has developed a distinct identity. The territory diverged from the mainland due to its long period of colonial administration and a different pace of economic, social, and cultural development. Mainstream culture is derived from immigrants originating from various parts of China. This was influenced by British-style education, a separate political system, and the territory's rapid development during the late 20th century.[240][241] Most incoming migrants fled poverty and war, reflected in the prevailing attitude toward wealth; Hongkongers tend to link self-image and decision-making to material benefits.[242][243]
Traditional Chinese family values, including family honour, filial piety, and a preference for sons, are prevalent.[244] Nuclear families are the most common households, although multi-generational and extended families are not unusual.[245] Spiritual concepts such as feng shui are observed; large-scale construction projects often hire consultants to ensure proper building positioning and layout. The degree of its adherence to feng shui is believed to determine the success of a business.[152]Bagua mirrors are regularly used to deflect evil spirits,[246] and buildings often lack floor numbers with a 4;[247] the number has a similar sound to the word for "die" in Cantonese.[248]
Cuisine
Food in Hong Kong is based on Cantonese cuisine, despite the territory's exposure to foreign influences and its residents' varied origins. Rice is the staple food, and is usually served plain with other dishes.[249] Freshness of ingredients is emphasised. Poultry and seafood are commonly sold live at wet markets, and ingredients are used as quickly as possible.[250] There are five daily meals: breakfast, lunch, afternoon tea, dinner, and siu yeh.[251] Dim sum, as part of yum cha (brunch), is a dining-out tradition with family and friends. Dishes include congee, cha siu bao, siu yuk, egg tarts, and mango pudding. Local versions of Western food are served at cha chaan teng (fast, casual restaurants). Common cha chaan teng menu items include macaroni in soup, deep-fried French toast, and Hong Kong-style milk tea.[249]
Cinema
Hong Kong developed into a filmmaking hub during the late 1940s as a wave of Shanghai filmmakers migrated to the territory, and these movie veterans helped rebuild the colony's entertainment industry over the next decade.[252] By the 1960s, the city was well known to overseas audiences through films such as The World of Suzie Wong.[253] When Bruce Lee's Way of the Dragon was released in 1972, local productions became popular outside Hong Kong. During the 1980s, films such as A Better Tomorrow, As Tears Go By, and Zu Warriors from the Magic Mountainexpanded global interest beyond martial arts films; locally made gangster films, romantic dramas, and supernatural fantasies became popular.[254] Hong Kong cinema continued to be internationally successful over the following decade with critically acclaimed dramas such as Farewell My Concubine, To Live, and Chungking Express. However, the city's martial-arts-film roots are evident in the roles of the most prolific Hong Kong actors. Jackie Chan, Donnie Yen, Jet Li, Chow Yun-fat, and Michelle Yeoh frequently play action-oriented roles in foreign films. At the height of the local movie industry in the early 1990s, over 400 films were produced each year; since then, industry momentum shifted to mainland China. The annual number of films produced has declined, to about 60 in 2017.[255]
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